This all goes back to an old book from Version 1.0 called, Essences & Permutations - A Treatise of the Six Elements. FINAL FANTASY XIV's elemental wheel takes a lot of cues from traditional Japanese elements while taking pieces of both Chinese and Medieval alchemy.
The outside of the elemental wheel rotates clockwise from the bottom - Ice, Water, Wind, Lightning, Fire, Earth, and back to Ice. These are how the elements are said to generate (the Nativities) - ice melts into water, water evaporates into wind, wind gathers storms, lightning ignites fires, fires burns all to earth, earth harbors the cold and creates ice.
There are also two "rock-paper-scissors" cycles in the system.
Conquest
Earth grounds Lightning.
Lightning boils Water.
Water Erodes Earth.
Submission
Fire is extinguished by Wind.
Wind is obstructed by Ice.
Ice is melted by Fire.
Though these aren't really used in the battle system (yet?), they influence a lot of subtleties in the lore. For example, when we wanted to nullify Garuda's wind barriers, we used over-aspected ice crystals to block the wind. We had to keep searching, too, because at first we came across over-aspected wind crystals, which would have just made everything worse.
Time also follows these cycles - from the days of the week to the influence of the months to the order of the Calamities themselves.
Barely-Related Digression: I've always hoped that as we approach LV99, the game would give Conjurer and Black Mage their three missing elements back to utilize them in different ways (because they did the best they could to make the class-to-job transition fit the lore, but not without some obvious hiccups). Imagine if they gave lightning back to Conjurer in the form of Shock Spikes, which had a chance to temporarily tilt a mob's aether towards lightning and make stone hit harder during that window. Imagine if you could cap a Black Mage rotation with a single-target Tornado instead of AOE-Flare and convert-Blizzard for twice the damage. Lost opportunities, I tell you.


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